Honda CRX :: miscellaneous

Honda CRX The CRX has been a vehicle way ahead of its time and a best seller for Honda for over twenty years since it was first introduced in 1985. It was inevitable from the start that there would be a reintroduction of one of the most sophisticated models ever introduced by Honda. Honda for over ten years has been seriously considering the redevelopment into the new concept version of the CRX. This vehicle would have similar past qualities, such as being a two seated hatchback and containing a spacious and luxurious interior as well as incorporating the technology of the future. The early models of the CRX were split into two generations, the reintroduction being the third generation. The first generation manufactured in 1985 until 1987 featured new technology and styling never before seen on the automotive market. Introduced with three sub models the HF, DX, and SI, all contained different engines, transmissions, styling, and performance specifications as shown on the chart enclosed. This first generation CRX was an odd addition to the car market due to their compact size and all around exterior â€Å"boxy† look. The second generation introduced in 1988-1991 was also broken off into three sub models due to performance enhancements. The exterior was sti ll the basic box shape, but with a more sleek and appealing body style than of its first generation production. The new CRX concept vehicle, being the third generation, will contain major upgrades while still trying to keep the ingenious styling of past generations. The exterior will still contain the basic two door hatchback look, but will incorporate a more flowing and curved body style, leaving the boxy look of the past behind. The biggest upgrade of the CRX would have to be its engine. While more economical than in the past, it will also be a more desired engine for sport compact enthusiasts. Honda will be leaving behind the standard 1.5 liter contained in all past generations and will be offering two sub models, each containing a different engine. The entry level vehicle will contain a 1.0 liter DOHC (dual overhead cam) VTEC housed in a three cylinder base, producing anywhere from 85-100 horsepower. The upgraded version will contain a very awaited and anticipated 1.6 liter DOHC VTEC in a four cylinder base producing about 150-200 horsepower. These numbers to most seem very low, but are very surprising when considering the overall weight distribution of the vehicle is only 1762.

Principles of Economics Essay

Italy is one of industrial countries in the world in European. According to Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (28 May 2009), Italy has two sections of economy; one is developed industrial north and less-developed with high unemployment in south. In 2008, the unemployment rate in Italy was estimated with 6. 8%, especially in agriculture. In the current financial crisis, many companies get stuck in financial difficulties so that they could not provide work and pay enough salary for employees. It leads to employees dismissal and workers become unemployment. In some other cases, people lose their jobs by their skills are not enough with work requirement and by many unpredictable reasons, namely natural calamity, earthquake, tsunami. Unemployment is one of the most popular problems in many countries all over the world. High unemployment rate makes bad influences on not only national economy but also living condition of citizens. People are willing to work but they can not find any job. They would have to reduce their demands so that productivity of firms also decreases. Unemployment also affects to some other factors such as health, education, insurance, etc. In many countries, the Government tries to control unemployment rate effectively. Because of unemployment situation, the Government has to spend more money on investing and purchasing goods and services made by firms to increase productivity in a short time. This section called Government expenditure or Government spending. The more the Government spends on firms, the better the company could be. Moreover, the Government also has to spend a huge amount of money on building schools, hospitals and improving traffic system per year. Especially, the Government would be in charge when there is any problem that influences civil living, such as poverty, communicative diseases, natural disasters and other social welfares for orphan children and old people. SUMMARY OF THE ARTICLE: An earthquake in Italy. â€Å"Death in the mountains† The article is all about an earthquake happened in L’Aquila, Italy recently which caused at least 250 cases death; over 1,000 injured, a loss of 39 habitants of Onna single village and 13,000 buildings damaged, (included the historic and artistic monuments). Besides, there is 17,000 people became homeless and the number of those who are unable to return to their homes until having been inspected is perhaps as many as 70,000. These numbers show that Italy in general and its economy in particular is facing a big trouble. How does Italy deal with this? Mr Silvio Berlusconi, the Minister of Economy and Finance of Italy firstly announced a dispatch of 14,500 tents for the homeless after touring to the area and those people are being cared for by the government. He also decided to decline offers of foreign help despite the magnitude of the damage is daunting and the public debt is exceeding the annual GDP of Italy. Besides, he intended to tap European Union funds as well as spending some cash for the construction project as a response to the economic crisis. UNEMPLOYMENT: Unemployment is simply known as people who are at the work age but currently jobless, those who are able and willing to work but cannot find a job or those who quit their job or being fired for some reasons. High unemployment makes bad affect not only for the living condition of people but also for the national economy. There are two types of unemployment: †¢ Disequilibrium unemployment is which happens when the average real wage rate is higher than the point that equates the aggregate demand and the supply of labour. †¢ Equilibrium unemployment is which happens when there are people unable or unwilling to find jobs. Applying to Italy economy, according to Italica news, the unemployment rate in Italy is quite high, 7. 1 percent in quarter 4 of 2008. And as mentioned above, the recently earthquake brings Italy a big trouble that it killed people, destroyed their homes, work places, and thus, people suddenly become homeless, jobless. This not only affects to the living of people but also leads the economy of Italy into deep recession. Unemployment occurs. Italy case of unemployment is type of disequilibrium unemployment: the earthquake destroyed the work places, people obviously lose jobs, besides, when the buildings collapsed or are damaged, firms have to spend money on rebuild and repair things, thus there will be a cut back on production and on the number of labour (demand-deficient) and as a result, the number of unemployment goes high (supply is higher than demand), there is surplus of labour in Italy. Secondly, this case can also be considered as frictional unemployment (a type of equilibrium unemployment) because people are not voluntarily leave their jobs but they are made redundant and losing their work places. In addition, using the circular flow of income will help explain better how the earthquake affects the economy of Italy. When people become unemployment, they will tend to cut back their consumption (domestic consumption goods and service decreases), start saving, thus, the firms lower their productivity (national income decreases, net saving increase). The Government will decreases taxes (net taxes decrease), in contract, to rebuild things, the investment and government expenditure will increase. The export expenditure and import expenditure will decrease because earthquake affects a lot on the tourism of Italy as it destroyed many ancient structures of Italy and make this place a mess. (Y) (C) (I) (G) (X) (S) (T) (M) SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES ON ITALY’S ECONOMY 1. Short-term effects †¢ Demand Curve P Supply curve shift P1 Equilibrium P2 New Equilibrium New demand curve Demand curve Q2 Q1 Q Actually, because of strongly earthquake destruction, citizens’ lives are affected. They live essentially base on grants and money that draw from the bank. The demand will decrease and curve shift to the left side so that make a new lower equilibrium. In this difficulty, the company cannot prevent the business because people don’t want to spend money. This change will make a worse effect to economic that still got lots of problem. †¢ Circular Flow of Income Corruption (I) (G) (X) (Y) (C) (S) (T) (M) Transfer Payments Corruption Properly, the earthquake effected directly and strongly to economy of Abruzzo region as well as GDP of Italy in 2009. Apply to the circular flow of income: Firstly, people lost their houses and properties so that the consumption of goods and services will decrease; after that the national income also decreases because firms were collapsed by the earthquake destruction and the demand is lower. Firms would produce less bring the price to higher. Secondly, the saving will decrease at the accidental region because people do not have so much money and increase in another places because the price is higher, people frequently save money. Due to the falling of demand, banks and investors will keep money, spend less into the investment. Thirdly, government expenditure must to spend a huge amount for rebuilding the infrastructure, namely public transportation, pipelines, and electricity. Moreover, the transfer payment is spent on unemployment, finding death and survivors under the ruins, relieving homeless people, providing drinks, food and medical treatments. After the earthquake, the firms fell down; many jobs lost; L’Aquila is the old city with famous architecture, the tourism is heavily affected so the taxation will decrease. Moreover, the corruption happened that make the circular flow of income become smaller and smaller and could be broken. To sum up, the circular of income is directly affected by earthquakes as well as natural disasters. The solution for that problem still has many barriers; Italy government and President Berlusconi must work totally hard. 2. Long-term effects. Earthquake directly affected certain macroeconomics variables include natural resources, physical capital, human capital and technology. Mostly, the negative impacts will be set on the short time, but positive influences also are classified permanently. First, the natural resources is destroyed that make bad impacts the economic depend on tourism like L’Aquila shortly, but in the long-term, it contribute new landscapes naturally in attracting people to come. Second, the physical capitals are collapsed and governments, investors will put money to build new ones fast and strongly replace the old. For example, President and parliament plan to build â€Å"British-style† new town in L’Aquila, make it more modern and ready to develop. The infrastructures will give people the jobs in building and fixing. It affects on human capital who are unemployment and poverty because of the disaster. Last, government will spend more to extend the forecast systems, make it become more accurate and faster in noticing the earthquakes. Definitely, negative or positive effects depend mostly on circumstances. With the high rank of corruptions, public debts and the downturn of national economy; Italy will make lots of efforts on turn round the development and increase % GDP. CORRUPTION: Corruption is a fact of life around the world, appears in all countries with low, medium or even high-income economy. Corruption leads to inequality, wasted resources and wasted public money. Corruption emerges one of the most serious problems within Italian economy besides high rate of unemployment and public debt, and it is related intimately with criminal organization known as mafia. There are some different types of corruption such as bribery, blackmail, tax evasion, official misconduct, etc. (Independent Commission Against Corruption. ) but within this work and the given case study we just mention corruption in Italian public works. Transparency International’s 2008 Bribe Payers’ Index found that public works/construction was the sector most vulnerable to corruption in emerging economies worldwide. It is really difficult to measure exactly the level of corruption in a specific country since the amount of money involved is not reported. All data used to estimate corruption in this work is based on the figure provided by Transparency International (TI), the global civil society organisation bills itself as a leader in fighting against corruption. TI uses CPI (Corruption Perception Index ) rank countries in terms of the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians. The CPI draws on different polls and surveys from more than ten independent institutions, for example, World Bank/European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, World Markets Research Centre, International Institute for Management Development and so on. Those surveys are also carried out among businesspeople and country analysts, including surveys of residents of countries. It is not the most accurate tool to measure corruption in any specific country but it is quite reliable. After the terrible earthquake on April 6, 2009, according to Interior Minister Roberto Maroni, Italy needs at least 12 billion euros to rebuild Abruzzo (News Source  © 2009 Reuters). However, with the quite high score in the 2008 CPI (4. 8 ), the government of Italy has to be cautious and consider carefully when pouring money into reconstructing Abruzzo unless they want to make another scandal Campania 1980, when some money was diverted to the Camorra, one of 3 biggest mafia organizations in Italy. When corruption exists, the money from transfer payment in circular flow of income will run out instead of injecting fully to households. The higher level of corruption is, the more money runs out that circular, causes the lesser supply of money in the whole economy and the government has to spend more money that would raise the public debt. If there is a corruption in the above project of Italy, the government will face the increase in public debt which exceeded Italy’s annual GDP already. And if the Italian Treasury were unable to find buyers for Italian sovereign bonds, Italy could default.

Culture Free Music

Sample details Pages: 27 Words: 8211 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? The uses of Music, Culture and the value of free Music In a Digital future Weve lost a whole generation of kids, who grew up downloading free music from the web and cannot fathom paying for it Abstract The past ten years have witnessed an enormous growth of musicology within the music and entertainment industry with questions concerning musical meaning and the extent to which its informed by cultural experience and socially derived knowledge. Groundbreaking developments are increasingly encouraging the demand for new products and platforms from consumer markets that have grown up downloading music knowing no better than to find their entertainment through the internet with the illusion that it is free. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Culture Free Music | Music Dissertations" essay for you Create order This dissertation looks at the early forms and purposes of music up to present day, factors threatening the music industry and what has affected it over recent years. The increased use of the internet, cheap software equipment and other technological art forms, have changed the way we sell, listen to and buy new music. I want to investigate what effects will this have on the industry in the future and what does this mean for artists and the way music is created and valued. Introduction Introduction will contextualise the central theme and notion of the work and describe my motivation and intensions. I will focus the introduction on the chapters individually. The industry has been hanging off the edge for some time (McQuinvey, J. Date. P.). Chapter 1 Talk about the development of technological devices related to new formats, and the main purposes of music up until today. Chapter 2 Talk about the technological developments which have an effect on the way we buy and listen to music. New devices and gadgets are demanding newer ways to attain music and how we consume new music. Chapter 3 Talk a little about the different types of people using and making music, how this is affecting record labels and what will happen in the future. As the development and discovery of technology grows and grows from early dates to present day, enabling more and more possiblilities. Cultures and social activities are affected by radical technological change. One of the primary proponents of this categorization was William. F. Ogburn. He argued that in most cases it is the sequence of technology that causes social change Over the past however many years, digital downloads have been fought against buy, major labels, causing decades of copyright and pirate copying of music films and entertainment mediums. 2005 onwards Today in 2008 the subject of digital downloading and the internet is being redefined and recognised by the major record labels hoping to create a future with easy access to new music quickly and cheaply. Starting new web sites for downloads etc. People want faster choices and ways to attain their entertainment. The fast changing cultures within society Growth of music technology Internet sites- Amazon competing with major companies to sell a wider range of products as more and more people are buying online instead of using high street shops and other retailers. Modes and categories inherited from the past no longer seem to fit todays reality, experienced by a new generation. Chapter 1 (Progression of early forms of music, formats and purposes) For centuries music has been the biggest form of entertainment within households, pubs, clubs and events ever since the recording of sound, but since the early days of music the purposes and the means to consume music has grown considerably up to the 20th century forcing formats, technology and the music industry to change with time. This chapter will outline the progression of technology associated with music and its means of use in relation to new entertainment. When Bartolomeo Cristofori became the inventor of the piano, identified as a stringed keyboard instrument with mechanically operated rebounding hammers, Cristoforis invention became a success and around 1922, a survey was carried out which shows that the piano was the most popular instrument used in over 25% of the average household. Along with many other musical instruments dated before and after the piano, instruments were used for enjoyment and entertainment and at times for families and friends who would gather together to play and sing songs on special occasions. When the very first phonograph was introduced by Thomas Edison around 1878 and the Edison Speaking Phonograph Company was established. The phonograph would be treated in the same way as a piano or organ as families would again sit around and listen to records or family stories within the home but Edison realised the opportunities he had created with his invention. Edisons invention enabled the possibilities of using the phonograph to perhaps dictate a letter, dictate books for the blind, make family recordings of their voices, music boxes and toys, clocks that announce the time, and a connection with the telephone company to record conversations. In 1857 Frenchman, Leon Scott de Martinville was the first to have invented his documented phonoautograph machine which was able to record sound waves but only created a visual analogue of the waves, until around 20 years later when Thomas Edison allowed two innovators to re-develop the later phonograph which became the gramophone. The gramophone used disk shaped materials to record onto which produced better recording quality and a longer playback time. American inventor Emile Berliner then created a process which allowed the sound tracing to be etched side-to-side in a spiral onto a zinc disk, this master would then be electroplated to create a negative which would then be used to stamp duplicate copies onto vulcanized rubber (and later shellac), a process which would change the means of music forever, a process now known as the mass reproduction of musical entertainment. The process to record, duplicate and play back music opened endless forms of entertainment and the industry were set to take the world by storm, selling records and making profits to consumers. The gramophone quickly outsold and overtook the phonograph and by the end of World War 1 the disc had become the dominant commercial recording format. A technological development which has had a major impact on music in this century is sound recording. Over the past seventy years the concert audience has been transformed from musical amateurs to a large number of potential buyers. The birth of sound recording started as a mechanical process, and with the exception of the Telegraphone in 1899 this process remained until the 1920s when a group of groundbreaking inventions in the field of electronics revolutionized sound recording and the young recording industry. Sound transducers were introduced such as microphones and loudspeakers and a few various electronic devices were made for the purpose of amplification and modifications of early electrical sound signals resulting in the mixing desk. Inevitably, over time all these components and inventions have had an affect on the way musicians record music, the uses of music and the growing demands of the music consumers to attain music. These electronic inventions created the means for growth and development within the music industry opening a wide range of possibilities for the recording process. Although many inventions and ideas were yet to be discovered, early music and its uses had progressed from a means of confined entertainment within the household to a possible, world wide product with which Emile Berliners early duplication process played a large part when it came to distribution and portability of recorded music. As time passed, increasingly people were able to buy recorded music which would be played on a gramophone wherever it may be. Emile Berliner realized the market wanted a range of music which can be bought, stored and played at any given point, the money earning potential would be high and with the importance of his discoveries, decided to start his very own brand of recorded music which up until today, with the changes and the new strains on the industry has been extremely successful with the famous dog and gramophone design of His Masters Voice (HMV). Music was now, not only being used just for enjoyment or purely for entertainment but was now, being recorded, duplicated and distributed to consumers around the world who are able to replay music over and over and enjoy their collections when ever and most importantly where ever. The next major progression concerning music which would increase the needs of high quality equipment was the introduction of descriptive and respective music tracks within film. The years 1920-1928 were known to be the golden age of silent movies. Early movies were accompanied by music scores containing pieces usually played by an organist, pianist or an orchestra depending on the class of the theatre. Sound tracks however were introduced to cinema audiences around 1926-1927 even though technology to add sound to film was discovered in 1911 it took another 15 years or so to be introduced and implemented into movie productions. The use of music within film during this particular period was predominantly used to raise the attraction of early movie productions which would change forever after the opening of Pandoras Box in 1927 and the increase of technical achievements which led Al-Jolson to ad-lib a few spoken words in The Jazz Singer. Recorded music for films then after became extremely successful within the movie industry and over the next few years Warner Bros. took control of this area (now a multi-billion pound industry) by producing ten all-talking films with accompanied sound tracks and scores leaving the silent movies on the shelf. This production process increasingly outlined the importance of having good quality sound systems to playback the music and sounds on film. Music will always essentially be a huge form of entertainment in many ways but now different music was being used for more reasons than originally supposed. With the on going growth of equipment and technology music became a money making product after the discovery of sound recording, music began to be used to compliment or help describe a visual performance rather than being an individual form of entertainment, it was now coinciding with other art forms and was boosting the popularity and profits of associated productions. With the discovery of magnetic media music will be promoted on a mass worldwide scale and allow the public and potential music buyers to listen to broadcasts over the air. The first radio broadcast which involved music was said to be in 1906 at Brant Rock MA, when Fessenden played his violin, sang a song and read a few verses from a bible into his wireless telephone on Christmas Eve 1906. It was classed as a broadcast because it was designed for more than one listener and was pre-announced rather than a one to one conversation. 1920 saw the first licensed radio broadcast, as Frank Conrads company was asked to go on air on a regular basis to send out music to the listeners and would sell radios to pay for the service. Radios were advertised in local newspapers to households and within a few years there were hundreds of stations entertaining thousands of people who had bought or built their own receivers. It was no longer, that an audience had to sit in their own home and manually operate a gramophone, no need to necessarily buy records from HMV and will no longer need to worry about play back time of records as the public could listen to the radio everyday, and tune in to their favorite radio stations free of charge. Growing factors underlined the importance of good quality equipment to further the success of music and the portability of music, which led to new discoveries of early formats and storage devices such as magnetic tape machines, cassettes tapes/players to audio cds. After the rubber and shellac records, which were the primary recording medium at the time, a new means for recording came about in 1934/35 when Joseph Begun of Germany built the first magnetic tape machine which was used for mobile radio broadcasting before creating the first consumer tape recorder which provided the 3M Company with a billion dollar industry. Magnetic tape machines became very popular storage and recording devices in radio stations and recording studios as they offer higher quality recording and longer continuous playback of recorded material, the most beneficial aspect of the invention of tape was its portability. Eventually two track tape machines were introduced which extended recording possibilities within the studio but magnetic tape was never used commercially by consumers until the release of the first compact audio-cassette tape in 1963 by The Phillips Company of the Netherlands. With a cheap and easy recording medium such as the cassette tape combined with a cassette tape player, It could be argued that this sparked the ever destructive and ongoing battle of music piracy. Taperecorders/players were sold with built in radios as standard and by the touch of a button it was possible torecord sounds and music straight from the radio. After Phillips had patented the cassette tape in 1965 and decided to make it free of charge all over the world, companies then started to design new portable recorders and players to compliment the compact size of the cassette tape. One of the popular models of tape players was the Sony Pressman which was a monaural tape recorder released in 1977. The next year in 1978 Sony founder and chief advisor Masaru Ibuka requested the general manger of the Tape Recorder Business Division to start work on a stereo based model of the earlier Sony Pressman which birthed the Sony TPS-L2 headphone stereo Walkman in 1979 that would completely chan ge the way consumers listen to music. Theyll take it everywhere with them, and they wont care about record functions. If we put a playback-only headphone stereo like this on the market, itll be a hit. What made the Sony Walkman such a big hit was the portability that it was offering to its consumers. Ever since the invention of the piano/organ, phonograph, gramophone, record players, wireless recorders and receivers, although, all mediums allowed the consumer to listen to music in various ways, none of which actually enabled the listener to become portable, on the move to be able to listen to their material literally wherever they wanted. Recording and listening to music from this point onwards almost became a hobby for a generation of people who would listen to the radio to try and catch their favourite song to record to tape, allowing them to repeatedly replay the material and start a collection of stored music. Many types of storage formats have been introduced by this point but very few which are truly beneficial to the storage and quality of music mediums. After the magnetic media such as: wire, core memory, drum, card, tape, disk and OM disk came many floppy disk formats which played a great part in early computing storage formats. Different versions of optical mediums were introduced optic data disk coming before Sony proposed a standard for the compact disk (CD) in 1980 but was followed by formats such as: DVD, HD-DVD, holographic, Blu-ray DVD and developments with OM disks. The introduction of optical mediums saw Sonys standard CD to hit the very top in high quality recording and storage mediums. CD-Rs are a write once, read many optical medium (WORM) which is a recordable version of the CD and holds a high level of compatibility with standard CD readers unlike CD-RWs which can be overwritten many times but has a lower compatibility level with CD readers and the disks are slightly more expensive. CDs became the most popular medium of music and data storage due to its capacity and ease of recording but there is one flaw in its design as after a life span of around 2 years its possible for the CDs data to degrade with time showing a coloured dye as a result. CDs hold a standard capacity of 700Mb where as the introduction of DVDs upped the capacity to 4.1 GB but was mostly associated with movies projects which contain much larger files. CDs are still the highest quality recording/storage medium to attain or store music on outside of a computers hard drive but with newer, smaller compressed formats such as MP3 on the market the option of buying a CD compared to a smaller and cheaper alternative looks bleak with time, so we see the CD taking a backseat to let newer recording and storage devices into the scene. Chapter 2 (A demanding society) In todays society where consumers are demanding faster, cheaper and easier methods of gaining entertainment, they also demand a new outlook towards devices, gadgets and components with which to view or listen to their product. This chapter underlines the changes of which new technology has an effect, they way society and subcultures are shaped by technology and how technology is forced to develop and become more advanced to meet the needs and perceptions of its consumers. In recent years the compact disk has ended the forty year reign of the twelve inch LP, with which came consequences for production, distribution and marketing, and in turn disks and tapes have been threatened by technologies which can deliver high quality sound via cable direct to potential consumers, eliminating the need for the already established pattern of product marketing and distribution. Although the invention of the phonograph and gramophones were considered important aspects in creating the a mass market for music and entertainment, the record industry has been shaped by the need to cope with its volatile market so its established practices and institutions have been constantly undermined by technological innovations which not only offer new and better ways of doing things but, as we shall see, have generally had the effect of increasing the consumers choice at the expense of the industries ability to control its market. (Scott, D. Martin, P. 1995 p.209) There are many important connections between technology, musical characteristics and social groups, and as it may be argued that the fundamental coordinates of a musical form are not determined by its social base, but each social group or subculture corresponds to certain acceptable genres. During the 1970s and 1980s the idea that the characteristics of a musical form could give life or influence to the social reality of a culture became more and more popular with incorporated sociological categories such as class, ethnicity and importantly age. In 1987 John Shepard extended this type of analysis to gender, arguing that different voice types or timbres in popular music gave expression to different kinds of gender identities. (Clayton, M. Herbert, T. Middleton, R. 2003, p. 7, p. 14) The 1990s saw different factors concerning the cultural study of music and the analytical evidence with particular social categories such as, class, ethnicity, age, subculture and counterculture. This had been replaced with a more embracing and persistent concern with social identity. With the concept of youth culture, its assumed that teenagers share similar leisure interests and pursuits and were involved in some kind of revolt against their parents and elders. The arrival of youth culture is said to be linked with the growth and increased incomes of early working class youths which allowed greater spending power and the means to express their individual interests and styles which caused large markets to develop more interest for the youth culture, most notably resulting in music and fashion. Its with particular music styles, genres and clothing styles and labels that predominantly place our identities within a culture or subculture, which technology helps shape and create aspirations in a similar way. Teenage culture is a contradictory mixture of the authentic and the manufactured: it is an area of self-expression for the young and a lush grazing ground for the commercial providers. (Hall, S. Whannel, P. 1964, p.) The compressed file format known as MP3 is at the centre of debate towards file-sharing and digital downloading and is thought to be downgrading towards the level of audible quality in music. Yet the mp3 is also a cultural artefact, apsychoacoustic technology that literally playsits listeners. Being a container technology type for recorded sound, the mp3 proves that the quality of portability is central to the history of auditory representation and shows that digital audio culture works according to logics somewhat dissimilar from digital visual culture. (Jonathan Sterne, 2006. New Media and Society, Vol. 8, No. 5, 825-842 DOI: 10.1177/1461444806067737) Todays young generation arent so aware of the historical factors and important issues which lead to the advances, demands and uses of audible quality music but more so, on the social aspects of consumption, portability and quantity of music. A spokes person for the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand, Terrance ONeill-Joyce, argues that: The problem is not with the actual technology of MP3, which he believes is being effectively used by many music producers, but rather the ineffective means of securing remuneration for artists. Its a case of technology outstripping legislation and a lack of proper commercial framework being established as of yet (Shuker. 2001 p. 65) MP3 is a technology encoding, recorded sound, so that it takes up less storage space than it would otherwise. The size of an MP3 file makes it practical to transfer high quality music files over the internet and store them on a computers hard drive, where as CD quality tracks take longer to download and transfer. The MP3 file has become very popular as a way to distribute and access music even though there has been enormous debate over the economic and cultural implications of this new technology. For the typical music consumer the MP3 file is considered a blessing as anyone can access a wide range and varieties of music mostly for free as well as having the option to compile their own albums of single tracks from their favorite artists without having to acquire the whole album itself. For artists and producers the MP3 allows them to distribute their music possibly to a world wide audience without tackling the political processes and mediation of the music industry. For mainstream artists on major record labels the MP3 raises concerns of profit loss from consumers due to illegal downloads which are free of charge and easy to attain. On the other hand for strictly internet distributed music producers and publishers the MP3 opens up many opportunities for smaller, more innovative labels and companies. (Shuker. 2001, Pg 65) Each new medium of technology, communication or entertainment thats introduced to a mainstream audience creates drastic changes towards the way in which we experience music, this also has implications for how we relate to and consume music. The changes and advances in technological recording equipment open, both constraints and opportunities relating to the organisation process and production of music, while the developments within musical instrumentation allow the emergence of new sounds. Most important of all, each new recording format or device used for transmission inevitably alters the previously established process of music production and consumption; they also raise questions about authorship and the legal status of music as a property and the ongoing battle with piracy and profit loss. Napster software was introduced in 1999, designed as a search engine, communication portal and file-sharing software that facilitated the sharing process by granting users access to all other Napster and the mp3 files they choose to share. Within a few months, transfers of music files using Napster reached millions per day, and at its peak, it was estimated that as many as sixty million people were using the site. Whereas Napster requires users to first log onto a central server to access other users MP3 files, these newer networks allow direct user-to-user (P2P) connections involving multiple file types. These innovations expand the universe of file sharing activity and make it virtually impossibly to track users of the files they choose to share (Garofalo, 2003 cited in Shuker, 2008 pg, 23) Digital distribution continuously threatened the music business and the control of music by the record companies. This method also lowers manufacturing and distribution costs while putting pressure on marketing and other aspects of the process. With the industry failing to stop illegal downloads and P2P (peer-to-peer) distribution of recorded music over the last five years, record labels have finally decided to adapt their business to suit the way its consumers get hold on their music. Its becoming more and more apparent that albums and artists are making very little or no money in the music industry because of the lack of physical CD sales as the majority of money spent during the traditional production process goes towards many aspects such as the production, promotion, duplication and distribution of a product. Mainly within the music business P2P technologies are a positive means for consumers and creative artists because all costs of production, promotion, marketing and distribution are dramatically lowered. These new technologies and approaches to digital distribution means old and new artists are able to earn more profits through selling singles and albums through P2P networks as the production process costs a fraction of the album or single. Because they can charge less they earn and sell more which means more artists will benefit financially and the industries broad range of music will receive a wider market to distribute to. It is easy to see that we are living in a time of rapid and radical social change, it is much less easy to come to terms with the fact that such change will, without doubt, affect the nature of those academic disciplines that both reflect our society and help to shape it (Hawkes. 2003. p.7) The growing concern with the music industry today is focused heavily on the affects of digital downloads and the fall of physical album/record sales sold in high street music shops and online stores. The debate continues as sales in the US as well as the UK have fallen due to a number of factors involving the growth of technology and the way we consume our entertainment. According to recent industry researchers, figures show that todays music industry (UK), has suffered a drop of up to 11% of record sales in 2007, but download sales boosted the singles market by nearly 30% last year as single sales increased from 67m in 2006 to 86.6m in 2007, up 29.3%. Despite there being best-selling albums from artists like Amy Winehouse and Leona Lewis, only 138.1 million albums were sold in 2007, compared with 154.7 million in 2006. Amy Winehouses Back to Black was the most popular album of 2007, with 1.85 million copies sold. Leona Lewis debut album Spirit came second, even though it was only released in November. Music industry body the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) put the 10.8% fall down to copyright theft and difficult retail conditions. Having the option of album unbundling is also a problem as consumers are able to select which tracks they want to download from each album, this means albums are not being sold as whole units and says a lot to the artists themselves about what their audience wants. Music Industry Analyst Michael McGuire of Gartner Research told Agency France-Press news agency: It comes back to consumers being in complete control of their media experience. Mr McGuire said fans were sending artists a message: While you may have put a lot of thought into the sequence of the album, I only like these three songs. BPI chief executive Geoff Taylor said: The UK market has shown considerable resilience in recent years while global recorded music markets have declined. Recording companies have a major influence on the music we listen to and shape whats known as popular music within society. The term popular music defies a precise straightforward definition and is usually over looked and the understanding of the term is taken for granted. To fully understand the term popular music its necessary to address the general field of popular culture within cultural studies. (See: Studying Popular Music Culture, Tim Wall). In this instance I refer the word popular music from the historical term for popular as the ordinary people, these days the meaning of the term has expanded, all music is popular music meaning music that is popular with someone. Young peoples musical activities whatever their cultural background or social position, rest on a substantial and sophisticated body of knowledge about popular music. Most young people have a clear understanding of its different genres, and an ability to hear and place sounds in terms of their histories, influences and sources. Young musicians and audiences have no hesitation about making and justifying judgements of meaning and value (Willis. 1990: 59 cited in Shuker. p.98) The music industry is big business, and international multi-billion dollar enterprise historically centred in the United States with the United Kingdom making a significant artistic contribution to the industry and developing trends as well as the emergence of Japanese media technologies playing a major part in the music industry for its commercial designs of gadgets and devices. Recording companies are the most important part of the music industry and fall into two main groups: the major international labels and the smaller independent labels whos structures and operating processes take on a similar role, blurring the distinctions between the two. These differences I will try to evaluate later on in chapter 3. The major labels are renowned for sourcing young talent, recording, promoting, marketing and distributing his/her music which has a powerful effect on the popular consumer, cultures and subcultures due to the image associated with that particular genre or style of music which is marketed, but its future is usually determined by the listener themselves. For after the commercial power of the record companies has been recognised, after the persuasive sirens of the radio acknowledged, after the recommendations of the music press noted, it is finally those who buy the records, dance to the rhythm and live to the beat who demonstrate, despite the determined conditions of its production, the wider potential of pop (Chambers, 1985: Introduction cited in Shuker 2001 p.23) Consumers are becoming less influenced by the major record labels with the help from the internet as consumers have more freedom to discover new genres and styles which are delivered in new ways. Record labels will always have a certain level of influence to its popular markets but now its the customer who decides on what they really like and want to listen to without feeling outside of the popular music category. I think there are many benefits for a musician not being signed to a label. Ive seen first hand, from my experience at major labels, where they will sign up and coming artists but when an instant hit doesnt happen, theyre tossed aside and ultimately dropped. That used to be the kiss of death for a band or artist because the thought was if they cant make it on a major, they cant make it (I certainly dont agree with that). The labels missed the key element which is artist development having a long term commitment to work them and build their fan base. The benefits of not being signed to a particular record label means the artist/band have significant control over their career, image, style and perceptions interpreted by the media and the public as well as the financial implications, as huge costs are axed due to the major cuts which would mainly benefit the record label. With the developments of digital music and the internet this offers the artist a bigger chance of their music being accessed by a wider audience and once the album is recorded, the packaging, duplication and distribution of a digital file costs very little reproduce. I think, inevitably consumers tastes will be affected in a positive way as we have the freedom to determine what styles of music we like and want to buy ourselves without our influences and opinions being shaped by the image of an artist or group designed and marketed by a major label. Particular performers and song contribute to forging a relationship between politics, cultural change and popular music and popular music has often acted as the as a powerful means of raising concerns about political issues. For example U2, whose music and lyrics are very much focused on political aspects. However, at the same time there is a tendency for such popular music forms to be marketed and watered down by the music industry. The term influential can almost take on the same historical meaning as popular. As popular is considered to be something which is liked by a certain scale of people, the term influential can be decided by the listener who has the right to independently determine whether a style or genre of music is influential to that person or not, as music effects and touches everyone in different ways. If record labels ever fail to churn out new artists who are marketed to be aspired to, or influential to its market, then I believe the consumer audience will simply find their own influential music via internet music sites and popular addresses such as: Myspace or You-tube and most of all Pandora. The use of the internet has opened the minds of people who may be socially unaware of other styles and genres from different cultural backgrounds which have merged with other styles and influences creating a wider diverse range which would not so easily be accessed or noticed through record stores. Most importantly for the consumer, new technologies allow customers to search and discover music in the comforts of their own home without the fears of character judgement, which can deter some listeners to widening their selections of music. This can also relate to all kinds of products outside of the music industry. Customers can access many different types of products, again in the comfort of their home, with the use of the internet. Many potential customers choose to browse and buy online as opposed to traipsing around the high street shops to buy their products, apart from the percentage of buyers who like to feel what they buy and see the product upfront. This rationale however, is the complete opposite in relation to music. Instead of endlessly looking at CD covers for images and song titles to convince us whether or not to buy that particular CD, and the obvious worry that we may not like what we end up hearing, the internet offers customers previews of tracks from singles and albums assuring us of what we are buying. Despite controversial views on album un-bundling, its apparent that customers feel they dont want to be forced into buying some music they dont like in order to receive music they do like. Its possible to say that advances of new technologies accompanied by the internet is making music more diverse and democratic, but is it the music or peoples attitudes who know no better than to use all means necessary to attain their music. Its almost become second nature for many consumers and growing youth cultures to turn straight to the internet or their mobile phones, iPods and mp3 players to listen to and get the music they want rather than understanding the financial processes involved within music production and therefore, pay for the product. I dont necessarily think the actions of such activities are undergone by the public because of a lack of respect towards artists and music itself, but because attitudes in society have changed, with so, the value of music. Chapter 3 (My little hobby and the value of todays music) Within studios, the advent of synthesisers and cheap studio software has blurred the established distinctions between musicians, composers, engineers and producers to the point where they may disappear, as recording technology has advanced well beyond the point where the main purpose is to record a performance. (Scott, D 1995 p.210) According to Brian Eno: Theres been a break between the traditional idea of music and what we now do on records. Its now possible to make records that have music that was never performed or never could be performed and in fact doesnt exist outside of that record. (Eno, B. 1983:16 cited in Scott, D 1995 p.210) In 2007 Thom Yorke and the other founding members of Radiohead released a path-breaking album which may revolutionise the way bands and artists sell their music to their consumer audience. The band quit their record label shortly before deciding to sell their music without the help of their long time owners EMI. Who needs a record company? (Fortune) Radiohead released the most talked about album in 2007 In Rainbows available for download from their website and then asked all fans who were interested in owning the album to pay a sum of money which they believe the album to be worth, fixing a minimum charge of around 2-4 pence. Radiohead realised the way in which the market seek the internet to find new music and to see the availability of music that they can download. Radiohead, not only released their album on the internet for free digital download for listeners to rank, they also released the album without their previous record label EMI. By releasing this album off their own backs, Radiohead see a substantial amount of profit from their sales which would otherwise be taken as royalties and cuts from their label. According to COM Score, the average Radiohead fan paid around $6 for the album which will have gone straight to Radiohead. These days there are plenty of artists and groups who are releasing music and attempting to sell their music without the help and support of a record label. There is no reason why Coldplay or Robbie Williams couldnt do it alone, they both have enough money and all profits would be earned directly, or on the other hand their labels will have to think about working with artists and bands, providing money upfront instead of relying on CD sales and downloads. After the ongoing discussions and debates between labels and music companies about the ever expanding digital domain, EMI have scrapped the efforts to stamp out online distribution with a move which will see EMI in favour of liberal licensing agreements. The label has decided to back digital downloads as they set to release over 140,000 songs for download over the internet, and their actions and intensions have been welcomed by many music firms. EMI is now providing consumers with the music they want in a way that is faster, safer and more adaptable than is currently available on any of the current services and its legal, Said Tony Wadsworth, Chairman of EMI Recorded Music UK Ireland. One of the major benefits of this decision is that new music will be available on the internet, possibly up to two weeks before the CD are sold in stores, meaning buyers can beat the pirates to their safe copies of their chosen music. Mr. Myers, who runs Wippet said he believes Universal and BMG will follow suit. But, does this then mean that the internet will become EMIs biggest method to sell more music and will this eventually have a major affect on our high street stores and the way we buy our products? The movements of such bands like radiohead have shown independent and unsigned artists that there are other ways to make profits from their music without the need and backing of a label. The implications of this method make it easier for artists and bands to have their music heard with a new way of selling it, without relying heavily on a major label to back them. These implications also raise questions about the future values of music in tomorrows digital world. Amateurs and new bands that begin at the bottom of the pile now have more freedom and an increased possibility of becoming recognized, creating a fan base and making money from their music. Throughout this dissertation its apparent that the internet has added a major new dimension towards the marketing, accessing and consumption of popular music, while creating new problems for the enforcement of copyright control on music and software. The internet was originally created for military use and is a computer-linked global communications technology with increasing amounts of people accessing it since the late 1990s. The web includes sites for online retail shops, for record companies and performers, online music journals, concerts and interviews, web radio and bulletin boards, but is now mostly associated with downloading music as digital files and downloading cheap, cracked versions of studio based software. The technical and musical mechanics available to the public today has closed the gap between professional and amateur producers in an out of the studio. Five years ago the consumer could only wonder how they could ever create their own music due to the costs involved in making a record as well achieving the popular status needed to succeed in the music industry. Today, however, a huge amount and an ever growing number of people are now making their own music for them selves as they realise the ease of attaining equipment and software to do so. With access to buying industry standard equipment and cracked software anyone can have ago at making a song and doesnt necessarily have to be involved in the industry or to even take it seriously and could be considered as a hobby whereas in the past recording and producing music was outlined as a profession. The advent of MIDI and digital electronics completely restructured music production from the early 1980s onwards and the development of new generation instruments and software created fresh sound possibilities, extended style, techniques and concepts of production, and raised the status of producers, professional or amateur. The price of software is continually falling and the VST side of sequencing software on computers have become more favoured over the years making it acceptable to use within a record. There is always going to be a degree of competition and audible difference in quality between professional and amateur artists in terms of production, but if major labels start to work in favour of digital promotion and distribution, then the future of amateur music on the internet will be threatened by the bigger labels. The influx of new music posted on the internet is healthy for independent labels and the promotion of up and coming artists, signed or unsigned as corporations have spent so long fighting for rights and trying to stop digital downloads. The threat comes from artists writing music for major labels as they have the upper hand because they are drastically supported and funded, ensuring their product and their image looks and sounds better compared to the D-I-Y amateur artist and will gain more control of the attention and direction of their fans. The difference between the major record labels and the independent labels are pretty vague in todays industry and is hard to solely identify the substantial comparisons of the two. However, this table shows the oppositions involved with the popular music industry and shows that the list on the right carries more positive connections than the one on the left, showing the majors as the enemy of all the points covered, placing independent companies in a position as guarantors of authenticity in popular music. MajorsIndependents SafeNew/risky DistantIntimate ProfitArt FakeReal/genuine StandardisedInnovative ConventionalRadical Whited-outEthnically assertive Middle-agedYouthful (Wall. 2003 p.85) There are many more ways music can be implemented today compared to its original form. Producers and song writers can now target a number of different markets to sell their music too such as: Household entertainment, TV and film, radio, musical devices (mobile phone ring tones), theatre shows, library music, shops, restaurants and advertisements. Individuals who write music within their home studios are not necessarily making music for money and recognition but as a hobby to feed their creativity in their spare time, perhaps working freelance outside of their 9 to 5 job. Creativity within music could boil down to a cultural process as people who are creating new music, in other words significantly different music, is made by social authors who work in networks, collaborating and sometimes competing with co-workers, critics the industry and the audience creating cultural change within society. A society without music has never been discovered. But although music making is a universal feature of human society, it is by no means universally undertaken by every individual within society. (Clayton, M. Herbert, T. Middleton, R. 2003 pg 263) Its possible that the uses of home studios and cheap studio software are having an effect on the potential market for individuals who are trying to break into the industry, as freelance producers take up jobs in their own time. The laid back attitudes of my little hobby producers and unsigned artists putting music on the internet, also threatens the value of music in the future as they are not so bothered about allowing their music to be downloaded for free. Costs of hiring recording studios too much for young artists so they do it at home Can do everything in a home studio as you can in pro studio Daniel beddingfield for instance Free music The term free music is similar to the notion of free software as the word free refers to freedom not price. Free music does not mean that musicians cannot charge their records, tapes or CDs. Free music means anyone has the freedom to do as they wish with that medium such as copying, distributing or modifying for personal or non-commercial purposes as it is usually DRM and copyright free. Its more so the expression of ideas which can be classed as free as the user again has the freedom to copy, assemble and create similar instrumentation of that medium as opposed to actually attaining the medium itself free of charge. Is free music a form of sub-cultural reaction or is it simply because it is free? Anyone, living no matter where, only has to turn a knob or put on a record to hear what he likes. Indeed it is just in this incredible facility, this lack of necessity for any effort, that the evil of this so-called process lies. For one can listen without hearing, just as one can look without seeing. The absence of active effort and the liking acquired for this facility make for laziness (Stravinsky, in his autobiography, 1935, cited in Chanan, M 1995, p. 117) The long tail Comparisons with other art form-Turner art forms Interesting expand on this Fine art what the buyer is willing to pay Consistent referencing (Harvard Theory) Primary Sources Bennett, A. 2000. Popular Music and Youth Culture: Music Identity and Place. New York: Palgrave. Derek B. Scott. Martin, P. (1995) On Changing Technology. Sounds and Society, Manchester University Press Edward C. Pytlik, Donald P. Lauda, David L. Johnson. Technology, Change and Society. Delmar Publishers) Clayton, M. Herbert, T. Middleton, R. (2003) The Cultural Study Of Music: A critical introduction. Routledge, Published in Great Britain. Hebdige, D. (1979 2005) (Subculture: The meaning of style). London: Methuen. Editors Preface Hall, S. Whannel, P. (1964) The Popular Arts, London: Hutchinson Hawkes, T. (1977 2003) (Structuralism and Semiotics). Routledge Pytlik, E. Lauda, D. Johnson, D. 1985. Technology, Change and Society. Albany, New York: Delmar Publishers, Inc. Shuker, R. Understanding Popular Music, second edition. Routledge. Published London and New York. Shuker, R. Understanding Popular Music, third edition. Routledge. Published London and New York. Wall, T. (2003) Studying Popular Music Culture. Published Great Britain, Oxford University Press Secondary Sources Fiske, John (1989): Understanding Popular Culture, Harper Collins Sturken, M. (2201): Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Hall, S. 1997): Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. Sage Publications. Giles, J. (1999) Studying Culture: A Practical Introduction. Oxford, Blackwell. During, S. (ed.) (1999): The Cultural Studies Reader, Routledge. Storey, J. Cultural Theory and Popular culture: A Reader Prentice Hall Muggleton, D. Inside Subculture: The Postmodern Meaning of Style (Dress, Body, Culture) Willis, P. Jones, S. Canaan, J. and Hurd, G. (1990) Common Cultures of the Young, Milton Keynes: Open University Press Williams, Raymond. (1976) Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. London, Fontana. Articles New Media Society, Vol. 8, No. 5, 825-842 (2006) DOI: 10.1177/1461444806067737 2006 SAGE Publications, Jonathan Sterne, McGill University, Canada